Chronology of Ancient Greece

based on the website "Exploring Ancient World Cultures".

I) 在起初 (公元前十二萬年至公元前第十世紀):
石器時代、銅器時代、黑暗時期

3300 BC: - The earliest known prehistoric civilizations occupy the Aegean (Αιγαίο 愛琴) world.

2200 BC: - Indo-European invaders, speaking the earliest forms of Greek, enter the mainland of Greece.

2000-1500 BC: - MINOAN CIVILIZATION (Μινωικός πολιτισμός 米諾文明)(named after the Cretan ruler Minos) reaches its height with its central power in Knossos (Κνωσός 克諾索斯) on the island of Crete (Κρήτη 克里特島). This culture is apparently more female-oriented and peaceful than others at the time.

1600 BC: - The Minoan eruption of Thera (Θήρα 錫拉島) also called Santorini (Σαντορίνη 聖托里尼), was one of the largest volcanic events on Earth in recorded history. The eruption devastated the island of Thera, including the Minoan settlement at Akrotiri (Ακρωτήρι 阿克羅蒂里), as well as communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and on the coast of Crete.

1400 BC: - MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION (Μυκηναϊκός πολιτισμός 邁錫尼文明) replaces Minoan Civilization after the destruction of Knossos. Bronze weapons, war-scenes on art, Cyclopean defence walls, and the fact that male warriors were buried with their weapons provide evidence for the claim that the Mycenaeans were militaristic. The horse-drawn chariot emerges around this time. The Mycenaeans dominate the Aegean world for about 200 years.

1250 BC: - Though this is disputed, some scholars believe that the MYCENAEANS wage war with the Trojans (Τρωικός 特洛伊人) of western Asia Minor and are successful. By 1100 BC they are overtaken by barbaric Dorian (Δωριεῖς 多利安) invaders who are using iron weapons. From this point, Greek culture enters the so-called Dark Ages, characterized by the disappearance of writing and a decline in architecture and other aspects of material culture. The period lasts until about 800 BC. The two Homeric epics 荷馬史詩, The Iliad (Ιλιάδας 伊利亞特) and The Odyssey (Οδύσσειας 奧德賽), are often used by scholars as evidence of the traditions and institutions in place during this time. However, such use is strongly contested.

II) 蓬勃時期 (公元前第九至第四世紀):
古風時期、古典時期

800 BC: - Increase in trade and the establishment of governmental defense fortifications allows for the emergence of Greek city-states 城邦 from tribal communities. These grow up around marketplaces and include ATHENS (Αθήνα 雅典), Thebes (Θῆβαι 底比斯) and Megara (Μέγαρα 麥加拉) on the Greek mainland. The Greek city-states are considered the most famous units of Greek political life to develop in this society.

800-500 BC: - This period, often referred to as the Archaic period (Αρχαϊκή εποχή 古風時期), marks the developments of literature and the arts, politics, philosophy and science. The Peloponnesian (Πελοπόννησος 伯羅奔尼撒人) city of Corinth (Κόρινθος 科林斯), SPARTA (Σπάρτη 斯巴達) and cities along the coast of the Aegean Sea (Αιγαίο Πέλαγος 愛琴海) flourish. For the most part, the Greek city-states are similar in their political evolution, with the exception of Sparta's elite dictatorship. Most begin their political histories as monarchies (Μοναρχία 君主制), evolve to oligarchies (ὀλιγαρχία 寡頭政治), are overthrown during the age of the tyrants (τύραννος 僭主 650-500 BC) and eventually establish democracies (δημοκρατία 民主) in the sixth and fifth centuries. Of the Greek city-states, ATHENS and Sparta were the two most important.

700 BC: - HESIOD (Ἡσίοδος 赫西俄德), Greece's second poet (after HOMER) and the first poet to name himself, is composing his poetry. His most important works are The Theogony (Θεογονία 神譜) and Works and Days (Έργα και Ημέραι 工作與時日).

640 BC: - Sparta's form of government, which is adapted from the Dorians, is heavily influenced by militarianism. The Messenian wars (Μεσσηνιακός Πόλεμος塞尼亞戰爭) initiate Sparta's fear of change. They remain an isolated people, primarily by banning trade and discouraging travel outside of Spartan territory. Alcaeus (Ἀλκαῖος 阿爾卡埃烏斯), Greek lyric poet, is born in Mytilene on the island of Lesbos (Λέσβος 萊斯沃斯). His lyrics expound on contemporary politics, love, hymns to Apollo and Hermes, and include some drinking songs.

612 BC: - Sappho (Σαπφώ 莎孚), Greek lyric poet of Lesbos, is born. The most famous female poet of the ancient world, Sappho is inscribed in the Palatine Anthology among the Muses, rather than among the great lyric poets, in the second century BC. Her lyric poetry includes the exploration of female sexuality, female values in a male dominated society, and love.

594 BC: - Solon (Σόλων 梭倫), the great elegiac poet, is appointed chief magistrate of ATHENS. His reforms include both political and economical adjustments which lead to dissatisfaction in the upper and lower classes.

585 BC: - In Miletus (Μίλητος 米利都), the founding city of philosophy, Thales (Θαλῆς 泰勒斯) predicts a total eclipse of the sun. The founder of the Melesian school, Thales, teaches that all things are composed of moisture; he is the first to put forth a rational explanation of the cosmos. By the end of the sixth century, philosophers begin to question the metaphysical nature of the cosmos with inquiries into the nature of being, the meaning of truth, and the relationship between the divine and the physical world.

546 BC: - The first of the Athenian tyrants, Peisistratus (Πεισίστρατος 庇西特拉圖), replaces Solon as ruler.

530 BC: - Pythagoras (Πυθαγόρας 畢達哥拉斯) and his followers found the city of Croton (Κρότωνας 克羅頓) and combine philosophy and literature with political activity as the foundation of their community. Pythagoras, mathematician and philosopher, is credited with the Pythagorean theorem and the Pythagorean table of opposites (the "dualism" that underlies Greek thought).

525 BC: - Greek drama grows out of the Dionysian festivals (Μεγάλα Διονύσια 酒神的節日). The plays of AESCHYLUS (Αισχυλος 埃斯庫羅斯) are considered to be the beginning of this long history of tragic drama. His stories are drawn from conflicts between the individual and the cosmos.

518 BC: - Pindar (Πίνδαρος 品達), considered by some to be the greatest Greek lyric poet, is born in Cynoscephalae (Κυνὸς Κεφαλῶν 庫諾斯克法萊), Boeotia (Βοιωτία 維奧蒂亞). Pindar's odes celebrate games held at the religious festivals of Greece. Athletic victory serves as the ground for his poetic fancy and his religious, moral, and aesthetic insights.

515 BC: - Parmenides (Παρμενίδης 巴門尼德) of Elea (Ἐλέα 愛利亞) is born. He is the founder of the Eleatic school in the Phocaean colony in southern Italy. He is the first to focus attention on the central problem of Greek metaphysics: the nature of being. For Parmenides, the laws governing the universe are stable. Change is merely an illusion.

510 BC: - Hippias (Ἱππίας 希庇亞斯), the son of Peisistratus, succeeds his father and is overthrown by a group of nobles with the help of SPARTA.

508 BC: - Cleisthenes (Κλεισθένης 克里斯提尼), the father of Athenian democracy, rules ATHENS. His reforms grant full rights to all free men of Athens.

500 BC: - The height of Greek sculpture begins with the work of Phidias (Φειδίας 菲迪亞斯). His masterpieces include the statue of Athena in the PARTHENON (Παρθενών 巴特農神殿), the Parthenon reliefs and the statue of Zeus (Ζεύς 宙斯) in the Temple of Olympian Zeus. The second most important sculptor, Myron (Μύρων 米隆) is renowned for his statue of the discus thrower.

490 BC: - Lasting until 479 BC, the Greeks initiate war with Persia when Persia, at this time the strongest power in western Asia, establishes rule over Greek-speaking cities in Asia Minor. The PERSIAN WARS are commonly regarded as among the most significant in all of history. Darius the Great (大流士一世) is defeated at the battle of Marathon (Μαραθών 馬拉松) in 490 BC. The Greeks emerge victorious and put an end to the possibility of Persian despotism.

486 BC: - A contempoary of Darius the Persian, Heraclitus (Ἡράκλειτος 赫拉克利特) of Ephesus (Ἐφέσιος 以弗所) lives somewhere around this time. For Heraclitus, reality is flux which originated out of fire (as opposed to Parmenides' "stable" reality -- see 515 BC). PLATO (Πλάτων 柏拉圖) credits Heraclitus for saying, "One cannot step into the same river twice."

485 BC: - Accompanying the high point of democracy in ATHENS is a Greek intellectual revolution, with its beginnings in Sophism. The Sophists (σοφιστής 詭辯者) situate ethics and politics within philosophical discourse which, before, was limited to physics and metaphysics alone. The leading Sophist, Protagoras (Πρωταγόρας 普羅泰戈拉), states his famous doctrine: "Man is the measure of all things." For him, all truth, goodness, beauty, etc. are relative to man's necessities and inquiries. Emerging in opposition to the Sophists are Socrates (Σωκράτης 蘇格拉底), PLATO (Πλάτων 柏拉圖) and ARISTOTLE (Ἀριστοτέλης 亞里斯多德), each of whom offers alternatives to the Sophists' relativism.

484 BC: - The father of history, Herodotus (Ἡρόδοτος 希羅多德), is born. He is author of a nine-book History of the Persian War and a book dedicated to his travels through Egypt.

478 BC: - ATHENS joins with other Greek city-states in the formation of the DELIAN (Δηλιακή 提洛) LEAGUE. The League continues even after the end of the PERSIAN WARS and transforms into a naval empire with Athens as its leader.

469 BC: - SOPHOCLES (Σοφοκλῆς 索福克勒斯) is born. He is the second Greek dramatist, following AESCHYLUS, and is considered by some to be the greatest of the Greek dramatists. His works include Oedipus Rex (Οἰδίπους Τύραννος 伊底帕斯王) and Antigone (Ἀντιγόνη 安提戈涅). He dies in 406 BC. This year also marks the birth of Socrates (Σωκράτης 蘇格拉底), a philosopher of ethics who leaves no written philosophy. He is the major critic of popular belief in ATHENS and is the protagonist of Plato's dialogues. He is condemned to death in 399 BC on the charges of corrupting the youth and introducing new gods into Greek thought.

461-429 BC: - During this "Age of Pericles (Περικλῆς 伯利克里)," Athenian democracy reaches perfection, and the court systems are completed. A jury system is put in place with the jury serving as absolute authority in judicial matters.

448 BC: - ARISTOPHANES (Ἀριστοφάνης 阿里斯托芬), considered by some to be the greatest Greek comedy writer, is born. Greek comedy, like Greek tragedy, originates out of the Dionysian festivals.

431-404 BC: - During the PELOPONNESIAN (Πελοπόννησος 伯罗奔尼撒) WAR between ATHENS and SPARTA, the political supremacy of Athens is ended. Athenian trade is destroyed. Athenian democracy is overthrown, and Athens is forced to surrender to Sparta as a subject state. Sparta assumes dominance over the Greek world and replaces many Greek democracies with oligarchies. The two major causes of the war are Athens' growth in imperialism and the economic and cultural differences between Athens and Sparta. Between 404 and 338, Sparta is not able to persist in the rule of Greece. Power over Greece shifts from Sparta to Thebes (Θῆβαι 底比斯 ) and then to numerous other city-states, none able to maintain rule over such a large empire.

427 BC: - PLATO (Πλάτων 柏拉圖), Socrates' most distinguished student, is born. He is a prolific writer and is considered by some to be the most important of all philosophers. Among his most noted works are The Apology, The Symposium, The Phaedo, The Phaedrus, and The Republic. His written works are in dialogue form. He dies in 347 BC.

406 BC: - EURIPIDES (Εὐριπίδης 歐里庇得斯) dies. Born in 480 BC, he is the last of the tragic dramatists. His contribution to the history of Greek tragedy is his creation of a drama that deals with situations analogous to human life.

384 BC: - Plato's most distinguished student, ARISTOTLE (Ἀριστοτέλης 亞里斯多德), is born. He enters Plato's Academy (Ἀκαδημία 柏拉圖學院) at the age of seventeen. After spending several years as tutor to Alexander the Great (Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας 亞歷山大大帝), Aristotle returns to ATHENS and founds the Lyceum (Λύκειον 亞里斯多德學院). Among his writings are treatises on logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, rhetoric and several on natural sciences. He dies in 322 BC.

III) 光輝與寶藏（公元前三世紀 - 公元一世紀）:
希臘化時期

350 BC: - HELLENISTIC GREECE (Ἑλληνιστής 希臘化時代) witnesses the new philosophy of the Cynics (Κυνικοί 犬儒學派). Their leader, Diogenes (Διογένης 狄奧根尼), puts forth the first argument against conventional life. The Cynics believe that people should live naturally and strive for self-sufficiency.

343 BC: - The greatest dramatist of HELLENISTIC GREECE, Menander (Μένανδρος 米南德), follows the comedic genre put forth by ARISTOPHANES (the subject of which is romantic love).

338 BC: - Philip of Macedon (Φίλιππος Β' ὁ Μακεδών 腓力二世,馬其頓), Alexander the Great's father, conquers Greece and is succeeded by his son two years later. At age twenty-two, Alexander begins his campaign to acquire new territory in Asia. Within four years, Alexander conquers the entire Persian Empire (including Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, Syria and Mesopotamia). Alexander continues his campaign farther east and eventually returns to Persia in 323 BC, where he dies of fever in Babylon. Before his death, Alexander was the ruler of the largest empire the world had seen. HELLENISTIC GREECE, a combination of Greek and western Asian cultures, lasts from Alexander's time until the beginning of the Christian era.

323 BC: - Alexander leaves no successors, and the highest generals engage in many wars which result in the decisive battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. The empire is divided into four major states under the separate rules of Seleucus (Σέλευκος 塞琉古), Lysimachus (Λυσίμαχος 萊西馬庫斯), Cassander (Κάσσανδρος 卡山得) and Ptolemy (Πτολεμαῖος 托勒密). Greek cities revolt against Macedonian rule but to no avail. The next four hundred years witness the growth of large cities and Hellenistic international trade.

300 BC: - Epicureanism and Stoicism (Στωικισμός 斯多噶學派) both originate in ATHENS. Both Epicurus (Ἐπίκουρος 伊比鳩魯) and Zeno (Ζήνων 芝諾), the Stoic (not to be confused with Zeno of Elea), believe in an individualistic and materialistic philosophy. Neither believe in spiritual substances. The soul is thought to be material. The Epicureans believe that pleasure is the highest good, and only by abandoning the fear of the supernatural can one achieve tranquillity of mind. The Stoics believe that tranquillity of mind is only achieved by surrendering the self to the order of the cosmos.

310 BC: - Hellenistic astronomy is founded by Aristarchus (Αρίσταρχος 阿里斯塔克斯) of Samos. His major contribution to Hellenistic thought is his theory that the earth and all other planets revolve around the sun, contrary to ARISTOTLE.

200 BC: - Under the influence of Carneades (Καρνεάδης 卡爾內阿德斯), Skepticism (σκέπτομαι 懷疑論) arises with doctrines closely tied to Sophism. They teach that because all knowledge is achieved through sense perception, nothing can be known for sure.

146-30 BC: - Between these years, nearly all Hellenistic territory becomes subject to Roman rule.